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A recent study by Betsy Wolf & Erica Harbatkin examined the difference in terms of effect sizes between types of measures. To be considered in this review, the studies had to be carried out on reading, STEM, or behavior topics using randomized or quasi-experimental designs and be part of the What Works Clearinghouse repository. A total of 373 studies with 1553 effect sizes were included in the review.

The measures used in each study were then classified in four categories: independent broad, when the measure was not created by the same researchers/developers who conducted the study or designed the program and was intended to evaluate student achievement in a subject; independent narrow, similar to the previous one but included measures intended to evaluate specific elements of a subject area; non-independent developer, when the measure was created by the developer of the program under evaluation; and non-independent researcher, when the measure was created by the authors of the study.

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